Constructivist/Constructionist Learning Theories and an Analysis of Instructional Strategies in the Language Arts Classroom

The most important quality of the constructivist and constructionist learning theories is the role the student plays within his or her own learning. According to this theory, learning is not teacher-centered; instead, more responsibility is placed on the student as the individual constructs his/her own meaning and is engaged in the process of building his/her own artifact. One instructional strategy that requires students to construct their own meaning is explored in Chapter 4 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. Chapter 4, or “Generating and Testing Hypotheses,” demonstrates how students are “engaging in complex mental processes, applying content knowledge like facts and vocabulary, and enhancing their overall understanding of the content” when they “generate and test hypotheses” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 202). Many of the tasks discussed seem better suited for a mathematics or science class, but some, such as the decision making task, would absolutely work in a language arts class. For this task, students can “define criteria and apply weight to the various criteria to decide which choice makes the most sense” (Pitler et al., 2007, p. 203). My students and I often discuss the decisions made by the characters in the books we read together; therefore, this is a relevant activity that would be made even more meaningful due to the fact that students would be evaluating their own hypotheses. A second learning task that I would use is that of the historical investigation. While I do not teach a history class, my students and I often delve into the subject depending on what text we are studying. To instruct students to “construct hypotheses about historical events for which there is no agreed-upon resolution” seems like a valuable lesson in which students would take great interest (Pitler et al., 2007, p. 203). Furthermore, the use of spreadsheet software, data collection tools, and web resources are also described in this chapter. One website, called Making History, is included in the section about web resources; this website allows students to play a strategy game about World War II. Curious to see if this same site offers a game about World War I, which I cover when reading All Quiet on the Western Front, I visited the site and found that it does indeed include a game about the Great War. The game supports the constructivist theory because it involves students taking on the roles of country leaders and making important political decisions. Therefore, students are taking on a more significant role in their learning and are very engaged in the learning process. I do not yet know how long it takes to play the game, nor do I want to turn my English class into a history class, so while I may not assign my students the game as a graded assignment, I would definitely suggest it to students or use it as an extra credit assignment.

To continue, Dr. Orey states that constructionism revolves around the idea that people learn best when they build an external artifact or something they can share with others (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). When students create artifacts, the theory of constructionism is supported because the classroom becomes a student-centered learning environment and there is an “emphasis on artifact creation as part of the learning outcome based on authentic and real life experiences with multiple perspectives” (Han & Bhattacharya, 2001). I believe that project-based learning can be a very valuable experience with students. Projects allow for student collaboration, teach time management skills, inspire creativity, and require students to take on more responsibility in their learning. Another reason why I support this type of learning is because students so often complete work that will only be viewed and assessed by their teacher. Assigning a project that will be shared with the class upon completion gives students more incentive to put plenty of effort into their work and do the best they can do. Moreover, assigning a project which students can share on the Internet is even better because it really broadens the audience and encourages students to take pride in their work. There are countless projects and meaningful artifacts that can be created with the assistance of technology. A website titled Project Based Learning is a great website designed to help teachers design important projects for high school students. It is devoted to teaching 21st century skills and includes a library of projects that have been developed by other educators.

Finally, another instructional strategy that encompasses constructivist and constructionist learning theories is problem-based instruction. This strategy attempts to “challenge students to address real-world problems and resolve realistic dilemmas” (Glazer, 2001). One technology tool that supports this type of learning is the Webquest, which is “a web-based, inquiry-oriented activity through which students examine evidence about a particular topic and then respond to an issue or make a decision from a particular point of view” (Glazer, 2001). I enjoy tackling WebQuests with my students because they can learn so many different aspects of a single topic to be explored. For example, when my students read Oedipus the King, I assign a WebQuest that directs them to websites that teach them about a variety of related topics, including the Oedipus Complex, consanguinity, hubris, and catharsis. WebQuest.org, developed by Bernie Dodge, permits teachers to create, share, and find WebQuests to use with their students. Because I just learned about this resource, I am eager to use it in the future and, hopefully, discover a multitude of WebQuests that I can use in my own classroom.

References

Glazer, E. (2001). Problem Based Instruction. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved  1/29/13, from http://projects.coe.ugaedu/epltt/

Han, S., and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved 1/29/13, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program seven: Constructionist and constructivist learning theories [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn? CourseID=5 700267& CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&course nav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Maleoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom

instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

The Cognitive Learning Theory and an Analysis of Instructional Strategies in the Language Arts Classroom

The Cognitive Learning Theory “explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing” and  “has been used to explain mental processes as they are influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about learning in an individual” (Sincero, 2011). Although the memorization and retention of information can be quite difficult, there are countless cognitive tools available to assist learners. Cognitive tools “allow students to interact with information in order to acquire, synthesize, create, and share new knowledge” (Robertson, Elliot, & Robinson, 2007).

In Chapter 4 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, the cognitive tools of cues, questions, and advance organizers are explored. This instructional strategy “focuses on enhancing students’ ability to retrieve, use, and organize information about a topic” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 73). First, cues and questions help students to anticipate what they will soon learn. For example, it is often recommended for teachers to ask “essential” questions so that they can exercise their critical thinking skills. Essential questions go above and beyond the easy questions that can be responded to with simple answers. While basic questions may be necessary for comprehension purposes, essential questions require students to research and access their deepest thinking skills. One website devoted to essential questions that I visited is called From Trivial Pursuit to Essential Questions and Standards-Based Learning. The author of the site writes that essential questions “call upon our best thinking and touch upon those matters that define what it means to be human” (McKenzie, 2001). As a language arts teacher, my students and I are constantly reading novels, plays, and short stories that focus on the human condition. Because it is one of my goals to teach my students empathy and universality, asking my students essential questions makes perfect sense. Additionally, “advance organizers can be a very effective way to help students understand new content” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 82). And according to Dr. Michael Orey, integrating multiple senses in presentations improves learning (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). Therefore, the next time I use PowerPoint to present new information about a text to my students, I will also be sure to incorporate a sound or visual clip as supplemental material since my students will retain more information that way. I can use a search engine such as Google Video or Teacher Tube to find film clips that are relevant to the text we are studying. Integrating multiple senses will ensure that my students are engaged and even entertained while simultaneously retaining information.  

Furthermore, in Chapter 5 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, the cognitive tools that are discussed include summarizing and note taking. Because Dr. Orey says that images are powerful tools to aid memory (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011), I was very intrigued with the section about combination notes created through the use of Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. Combination notes combine facts and graphics to help students remember necessary information and study for an upcoming quiz or test. In fact, “graphic representation has been shown to produce a percentile gain of 39 points in student achievement” (as cited in Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 124). Another cognitive tool is organizing and brainstorming software, such as Inspiration or Cacoo. These programs offer a variety of templates that can be altered to meet the teacher’s or students’ needs. One type of graphic organizer is called a concept map. Concept maps are innovative graphic organizers that include “relationships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts,” a “hierarchical structure” of knowledge, “cross-links,” and “specific examples of events or objects

that help to clarify the meaning of a given concept” (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Concept mapping is quite a valuable cognitive tool because it is similar to the network model of memory, allows elaboration, and supports dual coding of information, which are all components of cognitive learning theories, as discussed by Dr. Orey. While I have never used a concept map in my classroom before, I am eager to create one once I determine a lesson that could benefit from this instructional strategy.

A final activity that correlates with both cognitive learning theories and the instructional strategies mentioned above is a virtual field trip. Moreover, a virtual field trip is an example of experiential learning because it “capitalizes on the participants’ experiences for acquisition of knowledge” (Oxendine & Willson, 2004). The most obvious reason to utilize a virtual field trip with your students is because it provides the opportunity to take your students to a place that you are unable to physically visit. However, virtual field trips also create episodic memories and rich experiences, allow students to “witness” history, enable comparisons with other primary sources, and generate plenty of critical thinking activities (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). Dr. Orey states that long-term memory consists of episodic information or events in your life. Engaging in a virtual field trip is an example of an episodic memory; therefore, students will remember this type of learning experience and file it away for future use. Teachers can also use virtual field trips to help students answer essential questions and take notes on key pieces of information. One website that contains a collection of virtual field trips is Internet4Classrooms. When I searched for a virtual field trip relevant to language arts, I came upon a site that revolves around the life and works of Edgar Allan Poe. Knowing Poe is an incredible site that I have actually used in the past when I taught sophomores as part of the American literature curriculum. However, I did not realize until now that the website is an example of a virtual field trip. I do remember that my students thoroughly enjoyed this assignment, and that encourages me to incorporate more virtual field trip activities in the future.

I am confident that all of the cognitive tools discussed above would be excellent strategies to employ in the classroom. These powerful instructional strategies would surely help students to learn and process new and important pieces of information.

               References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

McKenzie, J. (n.d.). From trivial pursuit to essential questions and standards-based learning.  Retrieved January 21, 2012, from From Now On: The Education Technology Journal website: http://www.fno.org/feb01/pl.html

Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and

use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications /ResearchPapers/Theory UnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Oxendine, C., Robinson, J., & Willson, G. (2004). Experiential learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Maleoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Sincero, Sarah M. (2011). Cognitive Learning Theory. Retrieved Jan 21, 2013 from Explorable.com: http://explorable.com/cognitive-learning-theory.html

The Behaviorist Learning Theory and an Analysis of Instructional Strategies in the Language Arts Classroom

According to one principle of the behaviorist learning theory, “Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator” (Smith, 1999). Specifically, the reinforcement of student effort is an essential instructional strategy that demonstrates to students the connection between effort and success. As teachers, I would estimate that almost all of us talk to our students often about how they must work hard if they want to achieve their academic goals. However, despite our best efforts, our ‘pep’ talks may not be enough to motivate our students. Fortunately, there are technology resources available for us to prove the powerful relationship between effort and accomplishment. As discussed in Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, teachers can utilize websites such as RubiStar and SurveyMonkey to create rubrics and surveys in order to collect data about the amount of effort put forth and academic success attained by past students. Ultimately, when shared with present students, these sites will “provide data you can use to encourage students to try hard and to underscore the connection between effort and achievement” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 162). Because the behaviorist learning theory supports positive reinforcers, students would benefit from this data and from hearing true stories about previous students who enjoyed excellent high school careers, thanks to their dedication.

In addition to the reinforcement of effort that students may experience through the actions of their teachers, I believe that students have the ability to be powerful motivators for each other. As long as they have Internet access, students can use a variety of web sources to share their work with their classmates and with the world. Next, they can ask for feedback and constructive comments. For example, students in my 9th grade language arts class can create an alternate ending for Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, film it, and upload their video onto TeacherTube. Or, they could write an alternate final scene complete with dialogue and post it onto their blogs at Blogger. Both activities support the behaviorist learning theory because they have the ability to influence students to possibly put forth more effort than normal, since their work will be on display and will be available for review by their peers. Furthermore, “learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive,” and both of these websites incorporate the completion of hands-on activities.

To continue, repetition is another instructional strategy that supports the behaviorist learning theory. A second principle includes the notion that “skills are not acquired without frequent practice” (Smith, 1999). Like many teachers, I use homework to give my students the practice they need to truly understand the material we cover in class each day. Because I teach language arts, most of the homework I assign my students includes reading and/or writing components. Students typically only need their assigned text and their notebooks in order to complete their homework, but sometimes they must access the Internet for research purposes or use a computer to type their work. However, when teaching information that must be practiced for total comprehension, such as grammar or literary devices, there is educational technology available for assistance. For example, websites such as EnglishGrammar 101, Study Island, and Grammar Bytes include drills, games, and quizzes designed to help students learn correct grammar and important terms. The authors of Using Technology withClassroom Instruction that Works state that “multiple exposures to material help students deepen their understanding of content and become proficient with skills” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 188). Plenty of practice is a key aspect of students’ learning experiences and plays a crucial role in the behaviorist learning theory.

When incorporated successfully, the instructional strategies of reinforcement and repetition discussed above should be viewed as powerful evidence that the behaviorist learning theory is an effective component of education today.

References

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Maleoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The behaviourist orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm, Last update: May 29, 2012.