The Cognitive Learning Theory and an Analysis of Instructional Strategies in the Language Arts Classroom

The Cognitive Learning Theory “explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing” and  “has been used to explain mental processes as they are influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about learning in an individual” (Sincero, 2011). Although the memorization and retention of information can be quite difficult, there are countless cognitive tools available to assist learners. Cognitive tools “allow students to interact with information in order to acquire, synthesize, create, and share new knowledge” (Robertson, Elliot, & Robinson, 2007).

In Chapter 4 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, the cognitive tools of cues, questions, and advance organizers are explored. This instructional strategy “focuses on enhancing students’ ability to retrieve, use, and organize information about a topic” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 73). First, cues and questions help students to anticipate what they will soon learn. For example, it is often recommended for teachers to ask “essential” questions so that they can exercise their critical thinking skills. Essential questions go above and beyond the easy questions that can be responded to with simple answers. While basic questions may be necessary for comprehension purposes, essential questions require students to research and access their deepest thinking skills. One website devoted to essential questions that I visited is called From Trivial Pursuit to Essential Questions and Standards-Based Learning. The author of the site writes that essential questions “call upon our best thinking and touch upon those matters that define what it means to be human” (McKenzie, 2001). As a language arts teacher, my students and I are constantly reading novels, plays, and short stories that focus on the human condition. Because it is one of my goals to teach my students empathy and universality, asking my students essential questions makes perfect sense. Additionally, “advance organizers can be a very effective way to help students understand new content” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 82). And according to Dr. Michael Orey, integrating multiple senses in presentations improves learning (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). Therefore, the next time I use PowerPoint to present new information about a text to my students, I will also be sure to incorporate a sound or visual clip as supplemental material since my students will retain more information that way. I can use a search engine such as Google Video or Teacher Tube to find film clips that are relevant to the text we are studying. Integrating multiple senses will ensure that my students are engaged and even entertained while simultaneously retaining information.  

Furthermore, in Chapter 5 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, the cognitive tools that are discussed include summarizing and note taking. Because Dr. Orey says that images are powerful tools to aid memory (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011), I was very intrigued with the section about combination notes created through the use of Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. Combination notes combine facts and graphics to help students remember necessary information and study for an upcoming quiz or test. In fact, “graphic representation has been shown to produce a percentile gain of 39 points in student achievement” (as cited in Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 124). Another cognitive tool is organizing and brainstorming software, such as Inspiration or Cacoo. These programs offer a variety of templates that can be altered to meet the teacher’s or students’ needs. One type of graphic organizer is called a concept map. Concept maps are innovative graphic organizers that include “relationships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts,” a “hierarchical structure” of knowledge, “cross-links,” and “specific examples of events or objects

that help to clarify the meaning of a given concept” (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Concept mapping is quite a valuable cognitive tool because it is similar to the network model of memory, allows elaboration, and supports dual coding of information, which are all components of cognitive learning theories, as discussed by Dr. Orey. While I have never used a concept map in my classroom before, I am eager to create one once I determine a lesson that could benefit from this instructional strategy.

A final activity that correlates with both cognitive learning theories and the instructional strategies mentioned above is a virtual field trip. Moreover, a virtual field trip is an example of experiential learning because it “capitalizes on the participants’ experiences for acquisition of knowledge” (Oxendine & Willson, 2004). The most obvious reason to utilize a virtual field trip with your students is because it provides the opportunity to take your students to a place that you are unable to physically visit. However, virtual field trips also create episodic memories and rich experiences, allow students to “witness” history, enable comparisons with other primary sources, and generate plenty of critical thinking activities (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). Dr. Orey states that long-term memory consists of episodic information or events in your life. Engaging in a virtual field trip is an example of an episodic memory; therefore, students will remember this type of learning experience and file it away for future use. Teachers can also use virtual field trips to help students answer essential questions and take notes on key pieces of information. One website that contains a collection of virtual field trips is Internet4Classrooms. When I searched for a virtual field trip relevant to language arts, I came upon a site that revolves around the life and works of Edgar Allan Poe. Knowing Poe is an incredible site that I have actually used in the past when I taught sophomores as part of the American literature curriculum. However, I did not realize until now that the website is an example of a virtual field trip. I do remember that my students thoroughly enjoyed this assignment, and that encourages me to incorporate more virtual field trip activities in the future.

I am confident that all of the cognitive tools discussed above would be excellent strategies to employ in the classroom. These powerful instructional strategies would surely help students to learn and process new and important pieces of information.

               References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

McKenzie, J. (n.d.). From trivial pursuit to essential questions and standards-based learning.  Retrieved January 21, 2012, from From Now On: The Education Technology Journal website: http://www.fno.org/feb01/pl.html

Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and

use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications /ResearchPapers/Theory UnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Oxendine, C., Robinson, J., & Willson, G. (2004). Experiential learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Maleoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Sincero, Sarah M. (2011). Cognitive Learning Theory. Retrieved Jan 21, 2013 from Explorable.com: http://explorable.com/cognitive-learning-theory.html

The Behaviorist Learning Theory and an Analysis of Instructional Strategies in the Language Arts Classroom

According to one principle of the behaviorist learning theory, “Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator” (Smith, 1999). Specifically, the reinforcement of student effort is an essential instructional strategy that demonstrates to students the connection between effort and success. As teachers, I would estimate that almost all of us talk to our students often about how they must work hard if they want to achieve their academic goals. However, despite our best efforts, our ‘pep’ talks may not be enough to motivate our students. Fortunately, there are technology resources available for us to prove the powerful relationship between effort and accomplishment. As discussed in Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, teachers can utilize websites such as RubiStar and SurveyMonkey to create rubrics and surveys in order to collect data about the amount of effort put forth and academic success attained by past students. Ultimately, when shared with present students, these sites will “provide data you can use to encourage students to try hard and to underscore the connection between effort and achievement” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 162). Because the behaviorist learning theory supports positive reinforcers, students would benefit from this data and from hearing true stories about previous students who enjoyed excellent high school careers, thanks to their dedication.

In addition to the reinforcement of effort that students may experience through the actions of their teachers, I believe that students have the ability to be powerful motivators for each other. As long as they have Internet access, students can use a variety of web sources to share their work with their classmates and with the world. Next, they can ask for feedback and constructive comments. For example, students in my 9th grade language arts class can create an alternate ending for Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, film it, and upload their video onto TeacherTube. Or, they could write an alternate final scene complete with dialogue and post it onto their blogs at Blogger. Both activities support the behaviorist learning theory because they have the ability to influence students to possibly put forth more effort than normal, since their work will be on display and will be available for review by their peers. Furthermore, “learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive,” and both of these websites incorporate the completion of hands-on activities.

To continue, repetition is another instructional strategy that supports the behaviorist learning theory. A second principle includes the notion that “skills are not acquired without frequent practice” (Smith, 1999). Like many teachers, I use homework to give my students the practice they need to truly understand the material we cover in class each day. Because I teach language arts, most of the homework I assign my students includes reading and/or writing components. Students typically only need their assigned text and their notebooks in order to complete their homework, but sometimes they must access the Internet for research purposes or use a computer to type their work. However, when teaching information that must be practiced for total comprehension, such as grammar or literary devices, there is educational technology available for assistance. For example, websites such as EnglishGrammar 101, Study Island, and Grammar Bytes include drills, games, and quizzes designed to help students learn correct grammar and important terms. The authors of Using Technology withClassroom Instruction that Works state that “multiple exposures to material help students deepen their understanding of content and become proficient with skills” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 188). Plenty of practice is a key aspect of students’ learning experiences and plays a crucial role in the behaviorist learning theory.

When incorporated successfully, the instructional strategies of reinforcement and repetition discussed above should be viewed as powerful evidence that the behaviorist learning theory is an effective component of education today.

References

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Maleoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The behaviourist orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm, Last update: May 29, 2012.

Reflection of EDUC-67101: Understanding the Impact of Technology on Education, Work, and Society

Upon reflection of my latest course taken through Walden University, I realize that I have gained a wealth of new knowledge and skills that will assist me in preparing my students for the 21st century workplace. Blogs, wikis, and podcasts are all extremely accessible and meaningful resources that can be used for collaboration, assessment, and communication purposes. I am eager to begin incorporating these various technological tools in my own classroom because I believe that my students will enjoy and benefit from these new web tools.

To begin, this particular course has helped me to develop my own technology skills in the classroom. While I have been keeping my own teacher’s weblog for quite some time and have also required my students to create their own blogs in the past, I did not make enough use of them to be considered a valuable learning tool. Now that I have revisited the idea of keeping a blog and have gathered numerous ideas for their use, I am convinced that blogs are excellent methods of communication that I would like to reinstate in my classes. In his book Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts, and Other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms, Will Richardson (2010) provides many interesting ways of incorporating blogs into lessons. For example, he suggests having students create their own blogs to “complete class writing assignments” and “express their opinions on topics you are studying in class” (p. 40). As a language arts teacher, I know there are countless interesting prompts I can post onto my blog to which students can respond on their own blogs. Additionally, I appreciate the opportunities for peer to peer communication that blogs allow. Some students are very shy and may be hesitant to participate in class. Blogs give all students a voice, and some students may be more comfortable sharing in this mode. Richardson (2010) writes that a blog gives these taciturn students “the opportunity to share in writing the ideas they may be too shy to speak” (p. 27). After gaining more experience with blogs through this course, I am excited to give them a second chance. In addition to blogs, I have learned much more about wikis and podcasts, two forms of technology I have never used before. I will admit that I felt somewhat anxious about using these tools because I believed that they would be very challenging and time-consuming. However, I now know that they are both relatively simple and even fun to use. Creating a podcast and contributing to a group wiki for this course have proven to me that I can absolutely make room for these types of technology in my curriculum, and fortunately, I also feel comfortable teaching my students how to utilize podcasts and wikis.

Furthermore, this course has expanded my own knowledge of the evolving teaching and learning process. According to Dr. David Thornburg, some important issues in the world of education today include the changing work environment, the fact that today’s students learn differently from students in the past, and the changing role of the teacher (Laureate Education, Inc.). Today’s changing work environment has an enormous impact on the teaching and learning process because students need to be prepared in new ways. In “The Changing Work Environment: Part 2,” Dr. Chris Dede discusses critical skills that our students will need for the future, including expert decision making skills and complex communication skills (Laureate Education, Inc.). Therefore, the teaching and learning process must change in order to address these components. In fact, there is an abundance of newer skills with which our students should be equipped by the time they graduate. These skills are called 21st century skills, and they include critical thinking, problem solving, social responsibility, leadership, and more. Of course, this changes the teaching and learning process because teachers now have more responsibility in the classroom. In addition to the basic curriculum, teachers must ensure that they are incorporating lessons and activities that teach these necessary skills. Luckily, The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, a national organization, has created a helpful website for educators to assist them in this endeavor. They believe that “U.S. schools must align classroom environments with real world environments” in order to prepare students “to successfully face rigorous higher education coursework, career challenges, and a globally competitive workforce” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011). In today’s workforce, these skills are particularly valuable because the job market is very competitive. Moreover, we are living in an era of globalization and outsourcing, and many jobs are being given to those overseas. Friedman (2005) writes, “Globalization 3.0 is not only going to be driven more by individuals but also by a much more diverse -- non-Western, nonwhite -- group of individuals. In Globalization 3.0, you are going to see every color of the human rainbow take part” (p. 2). To ensure that our students have a chance in the global workforce, we must begin preparing them now. Unfortunately, preparing our students for tomorrow is not as easy as it once was because young people learn differently from previous generations. While I had suspected that today’s students are different, this course’s resources verified the changes that have taken place in the way students learn. Marc Prensky (2001), informs us that digital natives, or today’s students, “are all ‘native speakers’ of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet” while digital immigrants “were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point…become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology” (p.1). Because many of our schools’ digital natives are being taught by digital immigrants, there is a divide between the archaic teaching methods of the past, such as the reliance on lectures, and the innovative teaching styles of today, such as the use of various technologies. It is my belief that educators must adapt to the learning styles of today’s students by teaching what they want to learn, putting their excellent multi-tasking abilities to use, and including activities that hold their interest and challenge them to use technology in various ways.

Next, while I have always agreed with the philosophy that a classroom should be learner-centered, I have certainly gained new ideas about how to maintain this type of learning environment. The teacher should not be the focus of the classroom. It is difficult to avoid this mentality as our students are often used to it as well, but the attempt must be made to keep the focus on students, whether they are working individually or in groups. I think that a teacher should fulfill a facilitator-like role. Students should be doing the work on their own, with a teacher available for guidance and support. Incorporating activities such as class discussions, groups projects, debates, blogs, wikis, web quests, and podcasts put more responsibility on the students’ shoulders. Requiring students to complete the work themselves and adhere to deadlines teaches responsibility and helps to preserve a rigorous, challenging work environment. Additionally, students learn better when they are completing work on their own. For example, asking students to complete a web quest assignment about WWII, complete with photographs; film clips; and timelines; will surely teach them more about the event than sitting behind a desk; listening to a teacher’s lecture; and taking notes would teach them. Another learner-centered activity is the utilization of a wiki. Through wikis, students can collaborate on an assignment and communicate in a fresh way. In “Spotlight on Technology: Collaboration through Wikis,” teacher Jeff Houston demonstrates how teachers can guide students through the learning process and interact with students in an unobtrusive manner that keeps the focus on students. Also, “more companies are using social computing tools to aid collaboration and to foster innovation and growth” (Tapscott & Williams, 2007). Therefore, learner-centered activities, such as the wiki, are proven to be effective ways of preparing students for their futures.

While I believe that I learned many valuable things in this course, I know that my own education is far from over. I may now know how to integrate blogs, wikis, and podcasts in my classroom, but there are many other types of technology I have yet to discover. I will continue to expand my knowledge of learning, teaching, and technology by continuing my coursework through Walden University. I will take advantage of the professional learning opportunities that my school has to offer and continue to read scholarly journals that focus on the teaching of language arts. When new forms of technology that can be used in the classroom are brought to my attention, I will do my best to learn about them so that I can share my knowledge with my students. Additionally, I will listen to my students about the content they wish to learn and make sure that they are finding accurate, reliable information on their quests for knowledge.

This course has inspired me to set two goals for transforming my classroom environment in the near future. My first goal is to incorporate a technological component into each unit of the curriculum. For example, during the Shakespeare unit, I could have my students collaborate on a wiki as part of a group assignment based on social offenses found in Romeo and Juliet. During our reading of The Odyssey, students can create podcasts that describe how their own virtues compare to those of Odysseus. And as for blogs, I can require students to post in response to topics that are relevant to each text that we read together. Unfortunately, in my goal to integrate more technology, I could potentially run into problems with Internet access at my school. There is little that I can do to overcome these issues, but I must do my best to remain optimistic and not relinquish my plans to prepare my students to be technologically proficient. Of course, as 87% of today’s students have Internet access in their homes and the rest may use the computers available after school, I can also require Internet-related work to be completed outside of class (Laureate Education, Inc.). Next, my second goal is to remain open-minded and be willing to evolve along with my students. If my students are 21st century learners, then I want to be a 21st century teacher. I plan to create exciting lesson plans that engage my students and hold their interest. I also plan to teach my students as many 21st century skills as possible, so that they become responsible, intelligent, empathetic, well-rounded individuals who are very successful in the workplace of tomorrow. I do not foresee any obstacles that could stand in the way of this goal. As long as I continue to teach the curriculum, I believe that my inclusion of these skills would be supported by my colleagues and administrators.

After revisiting the checklist from Week 1, I have found a few of my answers to be changed. Specifically, one statement reads “Provide students with multiple and varied opportunities for using technology tools and resources to support the learning.” In the beginning of the course, I selected “Sometimes” as my answer, but now, in regard to my plans for the upcoming school year, I would select “Often” because I am now equipped with more options for technology inclusion in my classroom. Furthermore, another statement reads “Promote the development of leadership and technology skills in my students and colleagues.” Again, I chose “Sometimes” as my answer a few weeks ago, but now I would choose “Often.” I feel comfortable teaching blogs, wikis, and podcasts not just to my students, but to my colleagues, as well. Having knowledge of these newer technological tools makes me feel empowered and confident because I could easily help my colleagues learn how to use these tools so that they can also enhance their own instruction.

Overall, I believe it is clear that this course has helped me to become a more effective educator who is equipped to prepare digital natives for the 21st century workplace. I cannot wait to begin improving my unit plans with all of the ideas I have gained in this course!

References

Friedman, T. (2005, April 3). It's a flat world, after all. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/03/magazine/03DOMINANCE.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=It's%20a%20flat%20world,%20after%20all&st=cse

Laureate Education, Inc (2010). Spotlight on Technology: Collaboration Through Wikis” [Video]. (Available from Walden University).

Laureate Education, Inc (2010). The Changing Work Environment, Parts 1 and 2 [Video].

(Available from Walden University).

Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5).

Richardson, W. (2010). Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful web tools for classrooms (3rd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. (2007, March 26). The wiki workplace. Businessweek.com.

Retrievedfrom http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/mar2007/id20070326237620.htm?chan=search

The Partnership for 21^st Century Skills. (2011). The partnership for 21^st century skills [Website].

Retrieved from http://www.p21.org.

Adventures in Podcasting

Podcast #1: Profiling the Students of Today

I think most teachers today would agree that our profession is becoming more challenging with each passing year due to the technologically-evolved student populations in our classrooms. The majority of our students are what Marc Prensky (2001) refers to as “digital natives” or “‘native speakers’ of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet” while many of today’s teachers are considered to be “digital immigrants” who “were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point…become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology” (p.1). In an effort to learn more about these digital natives, I interviewed a young man who is soon to be a junior in high school. I asked him an assortment of questions relating to his digital abilities and interests, and while I did not have access to any other students his age, I believe that his responses seem typical for his age and grade level.

Furthermore, I have created a podcast based on my questions and the student’s answers. While I had never produced a podcast before and felt somewhat apprehensive about the process, I wanted to gain some experience with this type of technology so that I can begin utilizing it in my classroom next year. In regard to the use of podcasting in the classroom, Will Richardson (2010) writes, “Before you get your students podcasting, I would urge you to try it out first…I think you need to experience what you are asking your students to do—not only so you can support their technical use, but also so you understand what Web publishing really feels like” (p. 117). Thankfully, I found podcasting to be extremely simple and can imagine my students having a lot of fun creating podcasts for our class. After creating my very first podcast, I now have a better understanding of both podcasting and the average day in the life of a digital native.

References

Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5).

Richardson, W. (2010). Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful web tools for classrooms (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.